INTRODUCTION

GEOGRAPHY

Nepal is a land locked South Asian country situated in the lap of the Himalayas. It is located between latitude 26" 22' to 30" 27' North and longitude 80" 4' E to 88" 12' East and elevation ranges from 90 to 8,848 meters. The country is sandwiched between the two most populous countries in the world, India in the east, south and west and China’s Xiang Autonomous Region (Tibet) in the north. Nepal is roughly rectangular in shape, about 650 kilometers (400 miles) wide and 200 kilometers (125 miles) broad, with an area of 147,181 square kilometers (56,827 sq miles). It is separated from Bangladesh by an approximately fifteen kilometer wide strip of the Indian state of West Bengal. Nepal is dependent on India for transit facilities and access to the sea through the Bay of Bengal, even for goods coming from China.

Nepal boasts eight of the world’s fourteen highest mountains, including Mount Everest on the border with China. Mt. Everest is the tallest mountain in the world, and is situated between Nepal and the Tibet region of China. The South-east ridge on the Nepalese side of the mountain is technically easier to climb, which is why so many keen climbers go through Nepal to climb Mt. Everest.

CLIMATE

Nepal has a great deal of variation in climate and it is divided into five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to altitude. The tropical and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 meters (3,940 ft), the temperate zone 1,200 to 2,400 meters (3,900 – 7,875 ft), the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 meters (7,875 – 11,800 ft), the sub arctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 meters (11,800 – 14,400 ft), and arctic zone above 4,400 meters (14,400 ft). Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The Himalayas block cold winds from central Asia in winter, and forms the northern limit of the monsoon wind patterns.

The temperature and rainfall differ from place to place. Altitude affects annual rainfall or precipitation patterns. Up to about 3,000 meters, annual rainfall totals increase as the altitude increases; thereafter, annual totals diminish with increasing altitude and latitude. In addition to this latitudinal differentiation in rainfall, two other patterns can be discerned. First, given the northwestward movement of the moisture-laden summer monsoon (June to September), the amount of annual rainfall generally decreases from east to west. However, there are certain pockets with heavy annual rainfall totals, for example, the Pokhara Valley in central Nepal. Second, the horizontal extension of hill and mountain ranges creates a moist condition on south and east facing slopes, whereas it produces a major rain shadow on the northern sides of the slopes. Eastern Nepal receives approximately 2,500 millimeters of rain annually, the Kathmandu area about 1,420 millimeters, and western Nepal about 1,000 millimeters.

The towering Himalayas play a critical role, blocking the northwesterly advances of moist, tropical air from the Bay of Bengal, and ultimately leading to its conversion to rain in the summer. In the winter, this range prevents the outbursts of cold air from Inner Asia from reaching southern Nepal and northern India, thus ensuring warmer winters in these regions than otherwise would be the case.

TERRAIN

Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas: Mountain, Hill, and Terai regions. These ecological belts run east-west and are bisected by Nepal’s major river systems. The Terai plains bordering India are part of the northern rim of the Indo-Gangetic plains. They were formed and are fed by three major rivers: the Kosi, the Narayani (India’s Gandak river), and the Karanali. This region has a hot, humid climate. The Hill region abuts the mountains and varies from 1,000 to 4,000 meters in altitude. Two low mountain ranges, the Mahabharat Lekh and Shiwalik Range (also called the Churia range) dominate the region. The hilly belt includes the Kathmandu valley, the country’s most fertile and urbanized area. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural center of Nepal.

The Mountain region contains the highest region in the world. The world’s highest mountain, Mount Everest (Sagarmatha in Nepali) at 8,850 meters (29,035 ft) is located on the border with China. Kanchenjunga, the world’s third highest peak, is also located in Nepal. Deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of the ecosystem. These ecological regions were divided by the government into development sectors within the frame work of regional development planning. The rhythm of life in Nepal, as in most other parts of monsoonal Asia, is intricately yet intrinsically intertwined with its physical environment.

POPULATION

Nepal has a total population 27,676,547 as of July 2005, with a growth rate of 2.2%. Thirty nine percent of the population is up to 14 years old, 57.3% are aged between 15 and 64, and 3.7% above 65 years. The median age is 20.07 (19.91 for males and 20.24 for females). There are 1,060 males for every 1,000 females. Life expectancy is 59.8 years (60.9 for males and 59.5 for females). Nepal is one of the few countries in the world where males outlive females. According to the Nepal’s Central Bureau of Statistics in 2002, 14.2% of the population lived in urban areas while the remaining 85.8% lived in rural areas. Nepal ranks among the world’s poorest countries with per capita income of around $300 as of October 2006. Based on national calorie/GNP criteria, an estimated 31% of the population is below the poverty line. Total literacy rate is 53.74% (68.51% for males and 42.49% for females).  

GOVERNMENT

Since April 2006, Girija Prasad Koirala has been the prime minister, exercising all the executive and legislative powers under the interim constitution signed after the peace negotiation agreement between the SPA (Seven Party Alliance) government and the CPN (Communist party of Nepal) – Maoist. He is the president of the Nepali Congress, the largest political party in Nepal. King Gyanendra is the monarch of Nepal without any executive power or role in the government.

Until 1990, Nepal was an absolute monarchy with the King as the head of state of the Hindu kingdom. After the people's movement in April 1990, the existing Panchayat system of government was abolished. Under the new constitution, the legislature was bicameral; democratically elected parliament consisted of the House of Representatives (lower house) and National assembly (upper house). The National Assembly consisted of 60 members, of whom 35 are elected by the House of Representatives, 10 nominated by the King (as head of the state) and remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of village and towns. Legislature in the National Assembly has a six year term and could not be dissolved by the King. The House of Representative consisted of 205 elected members from national single member constituencies. The term of House of Representatives is five years. There has not been a parliamentary election after 1999.

Present King Gyanendra ascended to the throne in June 2001, after the Crown Prince Dipendra gunned down his parents King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya and seven other royals before killing himself. A Maoist insurgency, punctuated by a cease–fire in 2001 and in 2003, has been ongoing since the outbreak of insurgency in 1996. A nationwide state of emergency was in effect from November 2001 to August 2002, after the Maoist insurgents broke a four month cease-fire with violent simultaneous attacks on security establishments and on government buildings. During that time, King Gyanendra, under the constitution’s emergency provisions and on the advice of the cabinet, suspended several constitutional rights, including freedom of expression, assembly, privacy, and property.

In October 2002, the King dismissed then Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba's government for failing to hold promised general elections because of ongoing insurgency. A cabinet was royally appointed to govern the country until elections could be held at an unspecified future time. On June, 2003 King Gyanendra appointed Surya Bahadur Thapa as prime Minister after Lokendra Bahadur Chand resigned on May 30, 2003. The government and the Maoist declared another cease-fire on January 29, 2003 and held three rounds of talks from April to august 2003. The Maoist again unilaterally broke the cease-fire on august 27, 2003 and intensified their attack on government, security forces, and civilian targets.

Prime Minister Thapa resigned in May 2004; on June 2, 2004 King Gyanendra reinstituted formerly dismissed Sher Bahadur Deuba as Prime Minister. In February 2005, Deuba was dismissed and the King assumed direct power and declared a state of emergency for 3 months in view of the serious crises posed to the nation's sovereignty, integrity and security, due to the escalation of violence by the CPN-Maoist rebels. But in April 2006, another major people's movement pressured the King to relinquish power and King Gyanendra reinstated the parliament dismissed in May 2002. Former Prime Minister G.P. Koirala was unanimously selected as the leader of the agitating seven party alliances to lead the government. The Communist Party of Nepal -Maoist which has been waging people's war since February 1996 declared a unilateral cease-fire on April 26, 2006 and reciprocating the insurgents call, the government also announced cease-fire with peace proposal with rebels.

Under the constitution of Nepal, judiciary is legally separate from the executive and legislative branches and has increasingly shown the will to be independent of political influence. The Judiciary has the right of judicial review under the constitution. Earlier the King enjoyed the supreme power and appointed the chief justice and all the other judges to supreme, appellate, and district court upon the recommendations of judicial council. Under the interim constitution the Prime Minister has the power to appoint all judges including chief justice on the recommendation of judicial council. All lower court decisions, including acquittals are subject to appeal.

Nepal is going through a critical period in its history. The SPA (Seven Party Alliance) and CPN -Maoist (Communist party of Nepal) signed the interim constitution on December 15, 2006 which has 168 articles and will be promulgated once the arms management of the CPN-Maoist is completed. The interim constitution is another big leap in the political history of Nepal. With this, the country is about to enter into a new political direction. The interim constitution has effectively shifted all the privileges and power of the King to the Prime Minister and declared Nepal a secular state. The King is virtually powerless now and the fate of monarchy will be decided by the first meeting of Constitution Assembly. As per the draft, it will be a mixed electoral system for 425-seat Constitution Assembly for which 205 members will be elected by direct voting and 204 will be elected through proportional system ensuring quota for women, indigenous nationalities and religious groups, while 16 members will be nominated by the Prime Minister with the consent of the cabinet. The election for Constitution Assembly is proposed for June 2007.

HISTORY

EARLY HISTORY

Modern Nepal was created in the latter half of the 18th century when Prithvi Narayan Shah, the ruler of the small principality of Gorakha, formed a unified country from a number independent hill states. The country was frequently called the Gorakha kingdom; the term “Gurkha” was used for Nepali soldiers that served in the British Army and the Indian Army.

After 1800, the heirs of Prithvi Narayan Shah proved unable to maintain firm political control over Nepal. A period of internal turmoil followed, heightened by Nepal’s defeat in a war with the British from 1814 to 1816. Stability was restored after 1846 when the Rana family gained power, entrenched itself through hereditary prime ministers, and reduced the monarch to a figurehead. The Rana regime, a tightly centralized autocracy, pursued a policy of isolating Nepal from external influences. This policy helped Nepal maintain its national independence during the colonial era, but it also impeded the country’s economic development.

In 1950, King Tribhuvan, a direct descendent of Prithvi Narayan Shah, fled his “palace prison” to newly independent India, triggering off an armed revolt against the Rana administration. This allowed the return of the Shah family to power. A period of quasi-constitutional rule followed, during which the monarch, assisted by the leaders of fledgling political parties, governed the country. During the 1950’s, efforts were made to frame a constitution for Nepal that would establish a representative form of government, based on a British model.

MODERN HISTORY

In early 1959, King Mahendra the eldest son of late King Tribhuvan issued a new constitution and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress party, a moderate socialist group, gained a substantial victory in the election. Its leader, B.P. Koirala, the eldest brother of current Prime Minister G P Koirala, formed a government and served as the first elected Prime Minister of kingdom of Nepal. King Mahendra, declaring parliamentary democracy a failure, dismissed the B P Koirala government and promulgated a new constitution on December 16, 1962. The new constitution established a “partyless” panchayat system of governance which King Mahendra considered to be a democratic form of governance best suited to Nepalese tradition.

King Birendra ascended to throne at an early age of 27 after the demise of King Mahendra in 1972. The legacy of the partyless panchayat system continued, but after growing student unrest and protest in 1979 against the panchayat regime, King Birendra called for a referendum to decide whether to continue with the existing partyless panchayat system with reforms or to go for a multiparty system of democracy. People voted for the existing system with a narrow margin and the system continued with some reforms, including selection of Prime Minister by the Rastriya panchayat which again had to be approved by the King himself.

In 1990, the people’s revolution (“jana andolan”) pressured the King and the government to change. This time the leftist parties united under a common banner of the united left front and joined forces with Nepali Congress party to launch nationwide strikes and demonstrations in all the major cities. This movement for restoration of democracy was resisted by the government in the beginning with security forces dealing with the protesters, and arresting the leaders. But after 45 days of continuous strike and violent protest, almost 50 people lost their life and several hundred were injured. The King succumbed to the protest, declared a multiparty system of governance and lifted the ban on political parties. Krishna Prasad Bhattarai of the Nepali Congress was appointed as the interim Prime Minister and a cabinet was formed with all the political parties including royal nominees. A new constitution was drafted and elections were held with the Nepali Congress winning the majority of seats.

Girija Prasad Koirala, the leader of the Nepali Congress became the Prime minister but due to an ongoing intra-party dispute the Parliament was dissolved in 1994 and fresh elections were ordered. In the mid-term election of 1994, none of the party could get the majority except the leftist UML (United Marxist Leninist), which became the largest party and formed a minority government that lasted for 9 months. Nepal witnessed a series of ups and down with frequent changes in political combination having 11 governments over a period of just 10 years. The CPN (Communist Party of Nepal) Maoist launched an armed rebellion against the King and government in February 1996 which has cost over 13,000 innocent lives during the decade old insurgency. In 2001, crown prince Dipendra massacred ten members of the royal family, including King Birendra and Queen Aiswarya, before killing himself.  King Gyanendra ascended to the throne in June 2001 after the palace massacre.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Nepal, a land-locked country strategically situated between two Asian giants China and India, has developed a very harmonious and friendly relation with both the neighbors. Nepal and China’s diplomatic relation dates back to 1956 and since then both have maintained the bilateral relations based on the principle of equality and tradition. Nepal has almost 1,560 kilometers of open border with India from all three sides, east, west and south. Both countries renewed their trade and transit treaties in 1990, which dated back since 1950. There was a brief break in trade and transit treaty due to India’s security concerned over Nepal’s relations with China. A bilateral treaty signed in 1991 is renewed every five years.

The trade and transit treaty with India allows Nepal to trade with other countries through the Calcutta ports and renewed with mutual consultation from both side. India has helped Nepal in extending transit support by developing a dry port in Nepal by extending the railway line from Calcutta port to Birgunj a bordering town to facilitate easy and timely deliver of cargos.

Nepal has played an important role in the formation of the economic development oriented Asian Association for regional Co-operation (SAARC) and its secretariat is based in Nepal. Nepal is also a signatory of agreement on South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA), which came into force on January 1, 2006. On international issues, Nepal follows a non-aligned policy and votes with the No-Aligned Movement in United Nations. Nepal participates in a number of UN specialized agencies and is a member of World Trade Organization, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Colombo Plan and Asian Development Bank.

US –NEPAL RELATIONS

Nepal-United States relations date back to 1947, though the US opened its Embassy in Kathmandu in 1959. Since then, relations between the United States and Nepal have been very friendly and based on the equality principle. The United States opened its USAID Mission in Nepal long ago and has been continuously helping Nepal through this mission on various developmental sectors; education and health being the prime ones.  The US has been helping Nepal through the Peace Corps but temporarily suspended its operations in 2004 due to increasing security concerns threatened by escalating Maoist insurgency problems, and terminated its Nepal program in 2006. The number of Nepalese students coming to the US to pursue their higher education is increasing every year and numbers of US academics visit Nepal every year to pursue research in the area of their interest. 

Nepal supports the United States in their global war on terrorism and is an ally in their efforts to deal strongly with the terrorist organizations and their radical members. The United States has helped Nepal in dealing with the Maoist insurgency which has crippled Nepal for the past decade. The United States has played an important role in the recent SPA (Seven Party Alliance) government and the CPN (Communist Party of Nepal) Maoist in signing a broader peace negotiation, which has paved the way for ending the decade old insurgency in Nepal.

ECONOMY

Nepal ranks among the world’s poorest countries with per capita income of around $ 300 as of October 2006. Based on national calorie/GNP criteria, an estimated 31% of the population is below the poverty line. Nepal entered the modern era in 1951 without schools, hospitals, roads, telecommunications, electric power, industry, or a civil service. However, the country made progress toward sustainable economic growth since 1950s and is committed to a program of economic liberalization.  

Agriculture remains Nepal’s principal economic activity, employing over 76% of the population and providing 39% of GDP. Only about 25% of the total area is cultivable; another 33% is forest; most of rest is mountainous. Rice and wheat are the main crops. Real GDP growth during 1996-2002 averaged less than 5%. Real growth experienced a one time jump in 1999, rising to 6%, before slipping back to below 5%. In 2002, the GDP recorded a negative growth rate of 0.33%, largely because of the decade old Maoist insurgency which has crippled the economy of the country. GDP grew 3.1% in 2003 and 3.26% in 2004, and again slipped to 2.4% in 2005, according to Nepal Rastra Bank (Nepal’s Central Bank), published in US government country profile report October 2006. This is early an indicator of unstable economy. 

Despite its growing trade deficit, Nepal has a balance of payments (BOP) surplus due to money sent home from Nepalese working abroad. In FY 2004/05, however Nepal recorded a much lower balance of payments surplus of $80 million, compared to $217.7 million in 2003/04. The lower BOP surplus in FY 2004/05 is mainly attributed to the lower inflow of net government loans. The decline is primarily in the capital accounts, due primarily to a slow down in development activities funded by foreign grants and loans.

According to a report published by UN office for the co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs (February 2006) Nepal has maintained macroeconomic stability, aided largely by remittances from Nepalese working abroad, budget support from the World Bank and borrowing from the IMF's Poverty Reduction Growth Facility. Inflation has remained at under five percent in 2003/04. The conflict in Nepal has affected development projects, including those aiming to reduce the widespread poverty - the thrust of the government's five-year plan (2002-2007).

Nepal is one of the most attractive and cheapest tourist destinations in South Asia and earns large portions of its foreign exchange from tourism. Recent tourist arrivals, during the Maoist cease-fire, show a recovery from the massive decline experienced during the previous years. The fragile security situation, particularly after the Maoist ended their unilateral cease-fire on January 2, 2006, is expected to alter the trend of growth in economy. 

RELIGION

Religion in Nepal is comprised of an 80.6% majority of Hindus, 10.7% of Buddhists, Muslims 4.2%, Kirat 3.6%, and other religions 0.9%. Differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been, in general, very subtle and academic in nature due to the intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Both share common temples and worship common deities and many of Nepal’s Hindus could also be regarded as Buddhists and vice versa. Buddhists are mostly concentrated in the eastern regions and the central Terai. Buddhism was relatively more common among the newar and Tibetan-Nepalese groups. Among the Tibetan-Nepalese, those most influenced by Hinduism were Magar, Sunuwar, Limbu and Rai people. Hindu influence is less prominent among the Gurung, Bhutia, and Thakali groups, who employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Nepal, with a population of a little over 27 million people, is made up of over 40 different races and tribes. The country offers such diversity that a visitor may experience any life style from the stone age, in the far west and high hills, to the jet age of Kathmandu. The two major groups in Nepalese society are Tibeto-Burmans, or Mongoloids from the north, and Indo-Aryans from the south. Many customs are inherited from both sides and have been developed by influence of the land, climate and available resources.

The largest ethnic group is the Chhetri with 15.5%. Other groups are the Brahman – Hill 12.5%, Magar 7%, Tharu 6.6%, Tamang 5.5%, Newar 5.4%, Kami 3.9%, Yadav 3.9%, others 32.7%, unspecified 2.8%. Nepali is the National language with 47.8% of the population speaking it as their first language. Other languages include Maithali 12.1%, Bhojpuri 7.4%, Tharu (Dagaura/Rana) 5.8%, Tamang 5.1%, Nepal Bhasa 3.6%, Magar 3.3%, Awadhi 2.4%, others 10%, unspecified 2.5%. Certain ethnic groups in Nepal are categorized according to their occupation. They are Kamis (smiths), Damais (tailors), Dhobis (washerman), Sarkis (cobblers), Gaines (professional singers), and Khumbaras (porters).

CULTURE

The rich cultural heritage of Nepal has evolved over centuries. This multidimensional cultural heritage encompasses within itself cultural diversities of various ethnic, tribal and social groups, located at different altitudes, and also manifested in various other forms, including music, dance, art and crafts; folklore and folktales; languages and literature; philosophy and religion; festivals and celebrations; food and drinks.

Nepali culture is influenced by the culture of India bordering on the south and Tibet, the northern neighbor and autonomous region of China. There are similarities in clothing, languages and food habits. A typical Nepali meal is “dal-bhat,” which is boiled rice served with lentils, vegetables and some spicy relish. This meal is consumed twice daily, once in the morning and another after the sun has set. Between these main meals, a snack such as “chiura” (beaten rice) and tea is popular.

A wedding in the kingdom of Nepal is a major celebration which may continue over several days. The festivities incorporate a big party, lively music, a feast, and much dancing with fun for all concerned. A Nepalese bride will dress in the bridal color of red, beautifully dressed and with fancy jewelry. Traditionally, the bride and groom are carried to the wedding ceremony. A priest or monk will bless the couple, gifts are exchanged and then the party really begins.  The country is a whirlwind of colorful and exotic cultural expression, particularly in art, dance and music. All of this contributes to giving a Nepalese wedding a totally unique cultural identity.

FAMILY

Rural people are traditionally religious minded and prefer to live in joint families in rural areas, whereas the people in urban areas are a mixed of joint and single family. The role of family is very significant and all the family affairs are managed and dominated by the head of the family, who is the elder male in the family. Nepalese families are traditionally patriarchal in nature and the ancestral and family property goes to the male siblings. Recent laws have given women the right to paternal property, but only if the female member is not married until 35 years of age. If she gets married after becoming eligible, she has to return the inherited property.  Most of the marriages are arranged and decided by the parents, and although youngsters have begun choosing their partners, they still have to receive parental approval. After the marriage the wife takes on the surname or family name of her husband.

The typical family on an average will consist of 5 to 7 members and usually 2 generations live together. But it will differ in rural and urban areas. In rural areas, even today one might find 3 generations sharing and living together while in urban areas it might be 2 generations living together or the youngsters prefer to live independently as a single family. Being patriarchal, Nepalese families prefer to have at least one male child primarily due to reasons such as religious beliefs. It is believed that after the death of the parent (father/mother) the eldest son of the family has to perform the last rituals. The family bond is very strong due to the joint family orientation. Even if the family lives separately, they have moral bindings and obligations towards their parents to look after them during their old age. The society gives these traditional values the highest priority.

FOODS

The Nepalese food differs from one culture to another, however typical food can be described as “dal” (lentil soup), “bhat” (steamed rice), and “tarkari” (curried vegetables). It is the staple diet of most of the Nepalese people. Most popular lentils eaten in Nepal are black, red and yellow. The majority of Nepalese take two meals in the morning and evening. There is generally no tradition for breakfast in Nepalese culture, but people generally have tea both in the morning and afternoon. Nepali food is practical rather than gourmet fare, which is not to say it is not tasty.  

“Saag,” spinach, mustard green or broad leaved mustard, is a standard accompaniment to plain steamed rice for lunch or dinner. “Tarkari” is any vegetables or group of vegetables in curry usually in a broth that can be made in many different combinations. “Masu” is meat with spices (curry) and usually served with rice. Most Nepalese eat mutton, chicken and some eat buffalo and pork as well. People traditionally do not eat beef because cows are sacred and killing cows is prohibited by law. However, in hotels beef is available for the guest and tourists.

Relishes: “Achar” - a sour, spicy or sweet pickle, can be made in different ways and combinations. The most popular are made up of ground tomatoes, sliced radish, boiled or diced potatoes or chili (red or green).

Desert: “Dahi” (Yogurt / curd) - usually made up of buffalo milk. “Juju dhau”: popular creamy curd from Bhaktapur, an old tourist city adjacent to Kathmandu, the Nepalese capital. “Juju” literally means ‘King’.

Other foods: “Aloo tama bodi” - special Nepalese traditional curry made with potato, bamboo shoots and local beans. Momo - dumplings filled with minced meat (usually buffalo, chicken and mutton) served steamed or fried is very popular as afternoon snacks or even meals. “Sekuwa” - grilled meat usually made from mutton, chicken, duck, buff, and wild boar. “Sukuti” - spicy dried meat roasted over a charcoal fire, especially served in small and big restaurant, and is eaten with drinks.

Nepal being one of the world’s popular tourist destinations, a variety of foods is available everywhere from the small side streets to the five star luxury hotels. All sorts of continental dishes combined with Indian, Pakistani specialties, hot Chinese cuisine, Thai curries, Japanese sushi, Korean, and Vietnamese are available in Nepal. Therefore, there are plenty of choices for food and eating in Nepal that could be fun and enjoyable.  

ARTS

Nepalese art and crafts reflects the religious themes of Hinduism, Buddhism, and specific deities. The cultural history of Nepalese art is traditionally divided into five major periods: Pre-Licchavi, Licchavi, transitional, early Malla, and late malla periods.